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The randomness, unpredictability, and uncontrollable nature of ongoing terrorist attacks ensures maximum psychological impact. Individuals exposed to terrorism (either directly or indirectly through the media) often experience a number of emotions: shock or emotional numbness in the immediate aftermath, intense fear or anxiety about the future, and a sense of sadness or depression about the losses incurred. Stress-related symptoms (acute and post-traumatic stress symptoms, such as repeated memories, thoughts and mental pictures of the attacks, hyper arousal, and avoidance of reminders) as well as somatic symptoms (headaches, chest pains, nausea) are also quite common.

Moreover, research has demonstrated that the degree of individual response is not explained simply by the degree of exposure to or loss from the trauma.

However, beyond post-traumatic stress symptoms, positive personal and social consequences are also possible in response to terrorism: a new appreciation of the value of life, closer relationships with family members, recognition of increased altruism, kindness, and solidarity among others, and the perception of political benefits, such as increased patriotism and an increase in national security. In the absence of ongoing attacks, psychological symptoms typically diminish over time, and most individuals and communities are quite resilient and adaptable. Individuals and communities exposed to repeated and prolonged terrorist attacks often develop mechanisms to cope with the chronic stress.

The global terrorist organizations monitor closely media representations of their behavior, the social responses to threats and attacks, and the countermeasures that are implemented. This can lead to a revision in attack strategies, development of new tactics, and acquisition of new targets. The consequences, in turn, depend on risk communication, preparedness, and perceptions of who the terrorists are and why they have selected a given target and attack plan. Understanding the causes of terrorism can best be facilitated by recognition that the causes and consequences cannot be examined in isolation. They constitute a dynamic system, and each part plays an integral role in how the other is realized.

Moreover, while much of the impact of terrorist attacks is psychological, losses of infrastructure (e.g., transportation, communications) and resources (e.g., water, food, livestock) due to weapons of mass destruction can have very real material effects that significantly disrupt both individual- and community-level functioning. In addition, responses to the actual and perceived future threat may evoke political responses that in the aggregate can influence democratic values, institutions, and practices. For example, recent research suggests a strong association between perceptions of an ongoing threat of terrorism and support for increased diplomatic, military, and domestic action in response to the perceived threat, as well as a willingness to sacrifice personal liberties in support of anti-terrorist policies.

The future of terrorism is unknown, and terrorists' plans are undoubtedly shaped by the actions taken to defend against their success. A government's or public's efforts to defend against one means of attack undoubtedly leads to a search by the terrorists for additional vulnerabilities. Unfortunately, little evidence suggests that terrorism is decreasing in frequency or intensity as a technique as long as terrorists perceive the success of their mission.

References:

1) Matthew, Richard and George Shambaugh. 2005. "The Pendulum Effect: Explaining Shifts in the Democratic Responses to Terrorism." Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy 5:223-33.

2) Reich, Walter and Walter Laqueur. 1998. Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind. Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Press.

3) Smelser, Neil J. and Faith Mitchell, eds. 2002. Terrorism: Perspectives from the Behavioral and Social Sciences. Washington, DC: National Academies Press.

4) Sprinzak, Ehud. 1998. "The Great Superterrorism Scare." Foreign Policy (Fall):110-24.

5) Stern, Jessica. 2001. The Ultimate Terrorists. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

6) Van Creveld, Martin. 1996. "In Wake of Terrorism, Modern Armies Prove to Be Dinosaurs of Defense." New Perspectives Quarterly 13(4):57-59.

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