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Ancient Egypt was the land of the lower Nile Valley, from the First Cataract at Aswan in southern Egypt to the Mediterranean shore of the northern Delta. Because the Nile River flows from south to north, southern Egypt is called Upper Egypt, while northern Egypt (the Cairo region and the Delta) is Lower Egypt. In modern times the northern part of Upper Egypt, from Asyut to the Faiyum, is often referred to as Middle Egypt. The Egyptian Nile Valley consists of a continuous stretch of river and floodplain through Upper and Middle Egypt and the Cairo region. About 700 kilometers long, the Egyptian Nile Valley is unimpeded by any rapids.

The Nile Delta, in the northernmost part of the country, is where the river breaks off into several branches, which have changed over the course of millennia as some channels silted up and others formed (seven branches were known in the 1st century AD). The two main branches of the Nile of the present Delta are the western, Rosetta branch and the eastern, Damietta branch.

The southern border of ancient Egypt was at Aswan, where the northernmost Nile cataract is located. Nubia is to the south of Egypt along the Nile, with Lower Nubia between the First and Second Cataracts, and Upper Nubia to the south, farther up the Nile. During much of pharaonic times Egypt controlled parts of Nubia, but the region was culturally and geographically distinct from Egypt. Lower Nubia is now covered by Lake Nasser, which flooded the region after the Aswan High Dam was built in the 1960s. As a result, thousands of archaeological sites in Lower Nubia were destroyed, and tens of thousands of Nubians had to be relocated to new settlements in Egypt and Sudan.

From the beginning of the Dynastic period the capital of Egypt was at Memphis in Lower Egypt, to the west of which was Saqqara, where many kings of the Old Kingdom built their pyramids. The Theban area in Upper Egypt (modern Luxor) became important from the First Intermediate Period onward. Thebes was the power base of the kings who founded both the Middle and New Kingdoms, and the major cult center of the god Amen-Ra was located there. From the New Kingdom onward many cities were located in the Delta, which became highly populated. Middle Egypt remained a provincial region, except when the heretical king Akhenaten of the 18th Dynasty built his new capital city at the site of Amarna. To the west of the river in the northern part of Middle Egypt is the Faiyum region, with a large lake (Greco-Roman Lake Moeris, known as Birkat Qarun in Arabic) which is connected to the Nile via the Bahr Yusef branch of the Nile. The Faiyum is where there is evidence of the earliest farming in Egypt, in the late 6th millennium BC. . .

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