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One of the major stylistic innovators of the 20th century, winner of the Pulitzer Prize for The Old Man And The Sea (1952) and the Nobel Prize in literature, Ernest Hemingway was the author of 10 novels (six published during his lifetime), over 100 short stories, and some 20 volumes of nonfiction. The enthusiasms of his actual life emerged in the fictional lives of his characters: bullfighting, boxing, deep-sea fishing, big-game hunting, and war; to a greater extent than other writers, he blended his adventurous and artistic life so that it is difficult to separate the two. In the now classic novels The Sun Also Rises (1926), A Farewell to Arms (1929), and For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940), Hemingway employs a terse, laconic style--an economic use of words to create his version of reality. From mentors during his expatriate days in Paris, he learned the technique of repetition for effect and for creating realistic, penetrating images. He is also associated with his iceberg theory of writing, so called because the deeper meaning in a novel, as with icebergs, is elusive at first glance: while one-eighth is immediately visible, seven-eighths remain below the surface. Well known, too, is the metaphorically (but sometimes physically) wounded Hemingway hero, emblematic of the Lost Generation that followed World War I. The Hemingway code requires grace under pressure, or good manners in the face of any calamity--from a confrontation in a bull ring or a rude remark from an acquaintance. These influences surface in the hard-boiled detective fiction writers--Dashiell Hammett, Raymond Chandler, and James M. Cain--and in the work of a legion of writers stretching into the 21st century who name Hemingway as a mentor. Scholarly interest in Hemingway has actually increased rather than abated, with new biographies and critical books and articles discussing his use of violence, his portrayals of women, the famous Hemingway machismo, even his sexuality. One of the most significant American literary prizes, the PEN/Hemingway Award, bears his name, and the popular Hemingway parody contest is held annually.

Ernest Hemingway was born on July 21, 1899, in Oak Park, Illinois, to Clarence Edmunds Hemingway, a physician, and Grace Hall Hemingway, a music teacher. Reared and educated at public schools in Oak Park, Hemingway became a newspaper reporter in 1917, suffered wounds in both legs while driving for the Red Cross Ambulance Corps in Italy from 1918 to 1919, resumed his journalism career, and published his first book, Three Stories & Ten Poems, in 1923, and his first story collection, In Our Time, in 1925. The Torrents of Spring, a parody of Sherwood Anderson's Dark Laughter, was published in 1926. By this time his marriage to Hadley Richardson, whom he had wed in 1921, was foundering; they divorced in March 1927, and exactly two months later Hemingway married Pauline Pfeiffer, a writer. After their divorce in 1940, Hemingway was married to Martha Gellhorn, also a writer, from November 21, 1940, to December 21, 1945, and to Mary Welsh, a writer, from March 14, 1946, until his death in 1961. The Sun Also Rises established Hemingway as a spokesman for the Lost Generation. His rootless protagonists shuttle between France and Spain, Paris and Pamplona, engaging in casual affairs, bullfights, and fishing trips. Many empty hours are spent drinking wine and sherry at a succession of cafes and restaurants. In contrast, Jake Barnes, the wounded and emasculated American World War I veteran, is the Hemingway hero, a man who loves the vulnerable Lady Brett Ashley. Together with Jake, only Bill Gorton, a fine fisherman, and Pedro Romero, a fine matador, face the challenges with the courage demanded by the code by which the disillusioned Jake now lives. Similarly wounded lieutenant Frederic Henry of A Farewell to Arms finds love in the midst of war-torn Italy with Catherine Barkley, an English nurse who tends his wounds. She dies giving birth to their stillborn child. Frederic, who has also become disillusioned with the war, faces this loss and his empty future with stoic courage, later deciding to tell this tragic story. The novel was Hemingway's first best-selling novel.

To Have and Have Not (1937) takes place during the Great Depression in Key West, Florida, where Hemingway lived with Pauline Pfeiffer, and in Havana, Cuba, where Hemingway lived with Martha Gellhorn. Here Hemingway uses Harry Morgan, an ex-policeman from Miami, who runs a charter boat in Cuba, and multiple points of view, to contrast "have" characters with "have not" characters--writers, socialites, gays, Chinese refugees--each of whom supplies a fragment of the story. For Whom the Bell Tolls, now considered a classic 20th-century war novel, features Robert Jordan, an American professor who fights in Spain with the Loyalists during the Spanish civil war (1936-39) against the dictator, General Francisco Franco. Despite his love for Maria, a young Spanish woman recovering from her father's murder and her own rape by Fascists, and the meaning that this love has provided for him, Jordan bids farewell to Maria, along with the brave fighters Pilar, Pablo, Andres, and others. He chooses to sacrifice his life for the Loyalist cause and faces his death with calm courage.

As nearly every critic has noted, Across the River and Into the Trees (1950) seems to parody Hemingway's earlier characters, styles, and themes. Set in Venice, the novel focuses on American army colonel Richard Cantwell and his love affair with the Italian countess Renata. Yet Hemingway survived the negative reactions to this novel from readers and critics and produced the universally acclaimed novella, The Old Man and the Sea, a story--often called an allegory--of one man's ability to survive. Santiago, the old fisherman, braves age, exhaustion, hand cramps, and a three-day battle to capture the marlin of his dreams, only to lose it to a mako shark.

Hemingway's posthumously published novels have aroused controversy since publishers overrode Hemingway's decision not to publish them, particularly since they lack Hemingway's legendary skill at editing and revising his own work. Set in Paris, Bimini, and Cuba, Islands in the Stream features Thomas Hudson, a painter, and includes such autobiographical details as Hemingway's antisubmarine searches on his yacht, Pilar, during World War II. The Garden of Eden (1987) depicts the sexual experimentation, androgyny, and gender crossings of David and Catherine Bourne, a couple who, like the young Ernest and Pauline Hemingway, live for a time on Paris's rue du Cardinal Lemoine. Much less controversial was the publication of Hemingway's A Moveable Feast (1964), a fictionalized memoir of his time in Paris in the 1920s.

Several of Hemingway's works have been adapted  for motion pictures, including For Whom the Bell Tolls, screenplay by Dudley Nichols, starring Gary Cooper and Ingrid Bergman for Paramount in 1943; The Sun Also Rises, screenplay by Peter Viertel, starring Tyrone Power, Ava Gardner, Mel Ferrer, and Errol Flynn, for Twentieth Century-Fox in 1956; A Farewell to Arms, screenplay by Ben Hecht, starring Rock Hudson and Jennifer Jones, for the Selznick Co. in 1957; and The Old Man and the Sea, screenplay by Peter Viertel, starring Spencer Tracy, for Warner Brothers in 1958. To Have and Have Not, screenplay by Jules Furthman, starred Humphrey Bogart and Lauren Bacall in her debut role in 1944.

Ernest Hemingway died of a self-inflicted gunshot wound to the head on July 2, 1961, in Ketchum, Idaho.

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