Philosophy Custom Essay samples, Free samples: college essays, admission, argumentive essays


	▪ American History ▪ Art ▪ Biographies ▪ Business ▪ Case Studies ▪ Communication & Media ▪ Computer Technologies ▪ Controversial Topics ▪ Culture ▪ Economics ▪ Education ▪ Environmental Issues ▪ Finance		▪ Geography ▪ Health ▪ History ▪ Internet ▪ Management ▪ Media ▪ Philosophy Aristotle Bertrand Russell Confucianism Empiricism Francis Bacon Friedrich Nietzsche Jean Jacques Rousseau Plato Socrates ▪ Politics ▪ Religion ▪ Roman History ▪ Science and Technology ▪ Sociology ▪ World Literature


	The History of HIV/AIDS

	Imagine a disease that was usually fatal and could spread each and every time two people have sex. Now imagine that that disease progressed so slowly that it took an average of ten years from the time of infection until the infected person's death, sometimes as much as twenty years. Let's also imagine that the disease was caused by a virus so small, a mere 130 millionth of a millimeter in diameter, that if it was magnified several times, it still could not be seen with the naked eye. And what if the disease affected mostly people in the prime of their lives, rather than at the end of their years? And what if the disease produced hideous symptoms like purplish blotches on the skin, extreme fatigue, and severe weight loss? And imagine that disease was new and spreading around the world at an alarming rate, infecting tens of millions of people.


	▪	Women in the Military
	▪	The McCarthy Era
	▪	Pre-colonial New Zealand
	▪	Homeless People
	▪	Homosexuality: Biology and/or Culture?
	▪	The Development of Nuclear Power
	▪	Technologies of Industrial Revolution
	▪	African American English
	▪	Environmental Ethics
	▪	The Right to Die
	▪	Affirmative Action: Pursuing Fairness
	▪	The Abortion Reform Movement
	▪	Puritanism in America
	▪	Early Christian Art
	▪	Theodore Roosevelt
	▪	Labor Rights
	▪	Medieval Chivalry
	▪	Understanding Marijuana
	▪	Medicine in the Classical World
	▪	Health Care Policy in the US
	▪	Psychedelic Drugs Abuse
	▪	Ethics of Doctor-Patient Relationships
	▪	Religion of Rome and Early Italy
	▪	Standardized Testing
	▪	Economics of Alfred Marshall
	▪	Confucian Moral Self Cultivation
	▪	Genocide in Rwanda
	▪	Andy Warhol
	▪	Accounting Ethics
	▪	Benito Mussolini
	▪	Anthony Comstock
	▪	Henry Ford
	▪	Bram Stoker
	▪	The Television Industries: Broadcast, Cable, and Satellite
	▪	Online Gambling
	▪	New Spain
	▪	Homeopathy
	▪	International Financial Flows
	▪	Experiencing Culture Shock
	▪	Computer-Mediated Communication
	▪	Political Advertising
	▪	International Human Rights
	▪	The Iran-Contra Affairs

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Philosophy Custom Essays samples

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Aristotle


	Aristotle

	Aristotle (384 BC - March 7, 322 BC) was an ancient Greek philosopher. Along with Plato, he is often considered to be one of the two most influential philosophers in Western thought. He wrote many books about physics, poetry, zoology, logic, government, and biology. The three most influential ancient Greek philosophers were Aristotle, Plato (a teacher of Aristotle) and Socrates (ca. 470 BC-399 BC), whose thinking deeply influenced Plato. Among them they transformed Presocratic Greek philosophy into the foundations of Western philosophy as we know it. Socrates did not leave any writings, possibly as a result of the reasons articulated against writing philosophy attributed to him in Plato's dialogue Phaedrus. His ideas are known to us only indirectly, through Plato and a few other writers. The writings of Plato and Aristotle form the core of Ancient philosophy. Their works, although connected in many fundamental ways, are very different in both style and substance. Plato mainly wrote philosophical dialogues, that is, arguments in the form of conversations, usually with Socrates as a participant. Though the early dialogues are concerned mainly with methods of acquiring knowledge and most of the last ones with justice and practical ethics, his most famous works expressed a synoptic view of ethics, metaphysics, reason, knowledge and human life. The fundamental idea of Plato is that knowledge gained through the senses is always confused and impure; true knowledge being acquired by the contemplative soul that turns away from the world. To attain such true knowledge, the philosopher must make use of the "royal science" of dialectic. One of the necessary obstacles of dialectic is dialogue itself which guides the interlocutors away from the paths to truth. The soul alone can have knowledge of the Forms, the real essences of things, of which the world we see is but an imperfect copy. Such knowledge has ethical as well as scientific importance. Plato can be called, with qualification, an idealist and a rationalist. Aristotle, by contrast, placed much more value on knowledge gained from the senses and would correspondingly be better classed among modern empiricists. He also achieved a "grounding" of dialectic in the Topics by allowing interlocutors to begin from commonly held beliefs Endoxa; his goal being non-contradiction rather than Truth. He set the stage for what would eventually develop into the scientific method centuries later. Although he wrote dialogues early in his career, no more than fragments of these have survived. The works of Aristotle that still exist today are in treatise form and were, for the most part, unpublished texts. These were probably lecture notes or texts used by his students, and were almost certainly revised repeatedly over the course of years. As a result, these works tend to be eclectic, dense and difficult to read. Among the most important ones are Physics, Metaphysics, Nicomachean Ethics, Politics, De Anima (On the Soul) and Poetics.

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▪	Bertrand Russell


	Bertrand Russell's Philosophy

	The work of Bertrand Russell in contemporary philosophy has covered a wide variety of topics, and has attempted to answer many of the problems traditionally associated with philosophy. He has made important contributions to several fields, both in specific results and in new and suggestive hypotheses. The influence of his philosophy is apparent upon any examination of contemporary philosophy, especially in logic, epistemology, logical analysis, and the philosophy of science. However, the very fact that his philosophical interests have covered a wide range makes it difficult to obtain a brief systematic account which will do justice to them.

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▪	Confucianism


	Confucian Moral Self Cultivation

	Before turning to the seven individual thinkers and their respective theories of self cultivation, let us begin by exploring the more general question of why the Chinese originated and maintained such an enduring concern with the issue of moral self cultivation. For while such a concern with self cultivation is by no means unique, the prominence that this theme has enjoyed throughout different Chinese traditions -- Daoist and Buddhist as well as Confucian -- is distinctive. For example, while certain western thinkers, notably Aristotle, were deeply interested in self cultivation, this was not as central a theme in the western ethical tradition taken as a whole. Western philosophers have been much more concerned with trying to define what the good is and worrying about how, if at all, one can come to know the good. Chinese thinkers have focused instead on the problem of how to become good. Moral self cultivation is one of the most thoroughly and regularly discussed topics among Chinese ethical philosophers. . .

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▪	Empiricism


	Empiricism

	Empiricism is the philosophical doctrine that all human knowledge comes at first from senses and experience. Empiricism denies that humans have innate ideas or that anything is knowable prior to any experience. Empiricism is contrasted with continental rationalism, epitomized by Rene Descartes. According to the rationalist, philosophy should be performed via introspection and a priori deductive reasoning. Names associated with empiricism include St. Thomas Aquinas, Aristotle, Thomas Hobbes, Francis Bacon, John Locke, George Berkeley, and David Hume. It is generally regarded as being at the heart of the modern scientific method, that our theories should be based on our observations of the world rather than on intuition or faith; that is, empirical research and a posteriori inductive reasoning rather than purely deductive logic. Empirical is an adjective often used in conjunction with science, both the natural and social sciences, which means the use of working hypotheses which are capable of being disproved using observation or experiment (i.e.: ultimately through experience). In a second sense empirical in science may be synonymous with experimental. In this sense, an empirical result is an experimental observation. In this context, the term semi-empirical or semi-empirical is used for qualifying theoretical methods which use in part basic axioms or postulated scientific laws and empirical (experimental) results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical ab initio methods which are purely deductive and based on first principles. This terminology is particularly important in theoretical chemistry.

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▪	Francis Bacon


	Francis Bacon

	Francis Bacon, 1st Viscount St Albans, KC (22 January 1561 � 9 April 1626) was an English philosopher, statesman, spy, freemason and essayist. He was knighted in 1603, created Baron Verulam in 1618, and created Viscount St Albans in 1621; both peerage titles becoming extinct upon his death. He began his professional life as a lawyer, but he has become best known as a philosophical advocate and defender of the scientific revolution. His works establish and popularize an inductive methodology for scientific inquiry, often called the Baconian method. Induction implies drawing knowledge from the natural world through experimentation, observation, and testing of hypotheses. In the context of his time, such methods were connected with the occult trends of hermeticism and alchemy.

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▪	Friedrich Nietzsche


	Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche

	Despite the fact that he was a late-nineteenth-century thinker, Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900) provided arguments that challenge and undermine many of the assumptions that we still hold dear today. It is difficult for us to imagine a world without common sense, the distinction between truth and falsehood, the belief in some form of morality or an agreement that we are all human. But Nietzsche did imagine such a world and he also argued that we should write and think in such a way that we would realize this world. Nietzsche was not just another philosopher or thinker: he challenged the very concepts of knowledge and thought. More importantly, he insisted that through transforming how we write and think we might transform who we are.

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▪	Jean Jacques Rousseau


	Jean Jacques Rousseau

	Together with Montesquieu, Hume, Smith, and Kant among his contemporaries, Rousseau has exerted the most profound influence on modern European intellectual history, perhaps even surpassing anyone else of his day. No other eighteenth-century thinker contributed more major writings in so wide a range of subjects and forms, nor wrote with such sustained passion and eloquence. No one else managed through both his works and his life to excite or disturb public imagination so deeply. Almost alone among the seminal figures of the Enlightenment, he subjected the main currents of the world he inhabited to the most inspired censure, even while channelling their direction, and when French Revolutionary leaders later seized their opportunity to ignite the unity of political practice and theory, it was to his doctrines above all that they professed their allegiance.

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Plato


	Plato

	Plato (ca. May 21? 427 BC � ca. 347 BC) was an immensely influential classical Greek philosopher, student of Socrates, teacher of Aristotle, writer, and founder of the Academy in Athens. In countries speaking Arabic, Turkish, Persian, or Urdu, he is called Eflatun, which means a spring of water, and, metaphorically, of knowledge. Plato lectured extensively at the Academy but he also wrote on many philosophical issues. The most important writings of Plato are his dialogues; although a handful of epigrams also survive, and some letters have come down to us under his name. We have very good reasons to believe that all the known dialogues of Plato survive; some of the dialogues which the Greeks ascribed to him are considered by the consensus of scholars to be either suspect (e.g., First Alcibiades, Clitophon) or probably spurious (such as Demodocus, or the Second Alcibiades). Socrates is often a character in the dialogues of Plato. It is usually disputed how much of the content and argument of any given dialogue is Socrates' point of view, and how much of it Plato's. However, Plato was without doubt under a strong influence of Socrates' teachings, so many of the ideas presented in his early works were probably shared (at least partially).

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Socrates


	Socrates

	The character of Socrates provides an illustration of a historical conundrum. If Socrates ever wrote a single word, it has not survived. As such, the entirety of modern knowledge concerning Socrates must be drawn from a limited number of secondary sources, such as the works of Plato, Aristophanes and Xenophon. Aristophanes was known as a satirist, and so his accounts of Socrates may well be skewed, exaggerated, or totally falsified. Fragmentary evidence also exists from Socrates' contemporaries. Giannantoni, in his monumental work Socratis et Socraticorum Reliquiae collects every scrap of evidence pertaining to Socrates. It includes writers such as Aeschines Socraticus (not the orator), Antisthenes, and a number of others who knew Socrates. Plato, following Greek tradition, appears to have attributed his own ideas, theories, and possibly personal traits, to his mentor. Due to the problems inherent in such sources, all information regarding Socrates should be taken as possibly, but not definitely, true. According to accounts from antiquity, Socrates' father was Sophroniscus, a sculptor, and his mother Phaenarete, a midwife. He was married to Xanthippe, who bore him three sons. By the cultural standards of the time, she was considered a shrew. Socrates himself attested that he, having learned to live with Xanthippe, would be able to cope with any other human being (supposedly), just as a horse trainer accustomed to wilder horses might be more competent than one not. He also saw military action, fighting at the Battle of Potidaea, the Battle of Delium and the Battle of Amphipolis. It is believed, based on Plato's Symposium, that Socrates was decorated for bravery. In one instance he stayed with his wounded friend Alcibiades, and probably saved his life; despite the objections of Alcibiades, Socrates refused any sort of official recognition and instead encouraged the decoration of Alcibiades. During such campaigns, he also showed his extraordinary hardiness, walking without shoes and a coat in winter. It is unclear what exactly Socrates did for a living. He did not work; in Xenophon's Symposium he explicitly states that he devotes himself only to discussing philosophy, and that he thinks this is the most important art or occupation. It is unlikely that he was able to live off of family inheritance, given his father's occupation as an artisan. In the accounts of Plato, Socrates explicitly denies accepting money for teaching; however, Xenophon's Symposium clearly has Socrates state that he is paid by his students, and Aristophanes depicts Socrates as running a school of sophistry with his friend Chaerephon. It is also possible that Socrates survived off of the generosity of his wealthy and powerful friends, such as Alcibiades.

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