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Operation Just Cause was a code name for the U.S. invasion of Panama in 1989 and the subsequent overthrow of dictator Manuel Noriega in 1990. Noriega had worked with U.S. intelligence agencies in the 1970s and 1980s, but tensions between Panama and the administration of George H. W. Bush became acute by 1988. Noriega was involved in drug trafficking and money laundering for Colombian drug cartels, and he was indicted on 5 February 1989. In addition, Noriega's security forces were waging a campaign of harassment and intimidation against the 35,000 Americans living in Panama. During the 1989 elections, Noriega initiated a broad campaign to intimidate the opposition. In the May balloting, the opposition candidate, Guillermo Endara, was widely believed to have won the balloting, but Noriega nullified the results. When Panamanian security forces killed an American serviceman on 16 December, the breaking point was reached. Bush ordered U.S. forces to go on standby.

On 20 December 1989, Bush ordered American forces to overthrow and arrest Noriega. More than 27,000 U.S. troops were involved in the attack. The Panamanian Defense Forces (PDF) numbered about 16,000. The Americans quickly captured the main strategic areas in the country, including airfields and the PDF headquarters. While the majority of the PDF surrendered, certain bands of Noriega supporters, known as Dignity Battalions, continued to fight for several more days. Meanwhile, there was widespread looting and property theft. Endara was inaugurated as Panama's president on the opening day of the invasion.

Noriega went into hiding on the day of the invasion. The United States offered a $1 million reward for the capture of the Panamanian dictator, but he took refuge in the Vatican Embassy. American forces surrounded the facility and used psychological warfare techniques, including blaring rock and roll music, to prompt Noriega's surrender. There were also demonstrations by Panamanians near the embassy, with crowds demanding that the dictator turn himself over to be tried for human rights violations and murder. Noriega finally turned himself in to the Americans on 3 January 1990. He was immediately transported to the United States to stand trial. Noriega was convicted and sentenced on 16 September 1992 to 40 years in prison (in 1999, the sentence was reduced to 30 years).

Americans forces suffered 23 killed and 324 wounded. There were approximately 450 Panamanian soldiers killed and more than 1,000 wounded. In addition, about 300 Panamanian civilians were killed, several thousand injured, and more than 5,000 displaced by the fighting. The U.S. military provided shelter, food, and water for about 3,000 civilians. After the invasion, the Americans disbanded the PDF. U.S. military police remained deployed throughout the year to maintain order while a new police force and national guard were trained.

The Bush administration secured support from its European allies, but there was widespread criticism from developing states. AUnited Nations (UN) Security Council resolution condemning the invasion was jointly vetoed by France, Great Britain, and the United States. However, the Organization of American States adopted a decree on 22 December 1989 criticizing the military action and calling for the withdrawal of U.S. forces. Many in Latin America saw the invasion as another example of Washington's hemispheric hegemony. On 29 December, the UN General Assembly approved a similar measure.

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