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Groupthink refers to the psychological group dynamic that can lead to disastrous decision making. Developed by Irving Janis, the concept of groupthink explains how well-intended political leaders have made notoriously bad foreign policy decisions, such as the Bay of Pigs invasion of Cuba. Others have since invoked groupthink as an explanation for U.S. involvement in the Vietnam War and the post-9/11 invasion of Iraq. Groupthink also offers a more general explanation for disastrous decision making such as launching the doomed space shuttles Challenger and Columbia in the face of contradictory evidence, the Nixon Watergate cover-up, and lack of disaster preparedness despite warnings of impending danger, such as the federal government response before and after Hurricane Katrina struck Mississippi and Louisiana, particularly New Orleans, in 2005.

People who succumb to groupthink typically emphasize the importance of a uniting cause, a uniquely gifted leader, and a strong but vague sense of moral or intellectual superiority. Group members reinforce one another's optimism, believe they cannot fail, and confidently make risky decisions. The symptoms of groupthink include discounting warnings of negative outcomes, self-censoring of doubts, marginalizing critics, ignoring alternatives, disregarding risks, reinterpreting information, and refusing to make contingency plans in case of failure. Individuals adopt particular roles within the group, most notably a "mind guard," a person who detects and punishes others who threaten the group's cohesiveness. Proposed countermeasures to help groups resist succumbing to groupthink are appointing someone to play the role of devil's advocate, staying open to criticism, maintaining an open leadership style, valuing ideological diversity, and actively seeking opinions from sources outside the group.

Criticisms of groupthink fall into three general categories: the use of case studies for theory development, the dangers of hindsight bias, and the validity of the conditions necessary for groupthink. Experimental tests have produced mixed support, yet the idea of groupthink is so well known that some researchers, ironically, suggest that many people believe in the idea far more enthusiastically than empirical tests of the evidence warrant. The criticisms produced refinements of Janis's original idea, particularly in an effort to clarify the conditions associated with the development of groupthink. They include the need for a strong social identity, cognitive dissonance, an abusive organizational structure, and personality characteristics such as hubris and a high level of confidence in the group's ability to make proper decisions. Despite the criticisms, use of the concept of groupthink continues as an explanation for defective group decision making that produces disastrous results.

Bibliography:

1) Choi, Jin Nam and Myung Un Kim. 1999. "The Organizational Application of Groupthink and Its Limitations in Organizations." Journal of Applied Psychology 82(2):297-306.

2) Janis, Irving L. 1972. Victims of Groupthink. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

3) Janis, Irving L. 1982. Groupthink: Psychological Studies of Policy Decisions and Fiascoes. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

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