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So what does the research say about the efficacy of inclusive education--that is, students with mild to severe disabilities, typical average students, students who are gifted and talented, racially and culturally diverse students learning together? As always, of course, research in any meaningful question is never finished. However, here are some conclusions that are clear from the present research base:

-   Studies that have systematically compared outcomes from inclusive education and separate programs most often show that academic and social gains are higher in inclusive classes. In some studies, the results were mixed. It is notable that no studies showed segregated education to produce greater academic or social outcomes. It is also notable that research to date does not distinguish between the quality of practices in the general education classroom. The only comparison was between inclusive classrooms and separate classes. It would appear likely that quality inclusive teaching practices would increase the positive impact of inclusive education even more.

-   For students with cognitive disabilities, the more they are included in general education classes, the higher their academic, cognitive, and social functioning.

-   Students with mild disabilities make better gains in inclusive than in pull-out programs.

-   The quality and outcomes of individualized education plans is improved for students with moderate to severe disabilities.

-   There is no evidence that academic progress is impeded, but there is evidence that it is increased in inclusive classes for students without disabilities.

-   Instruction may be improved for all students at all levels as teachers learn skills of multilevel and differentiated instruction.

-   Friendships and social interactions for students with disabilities expand in school and carry over to after-school contexts.

-   Students with mild disabilities are less often accepted and more likely rejected due to behavior than nondisabled students. However, teachers can used numer- ous strategies for addressing issues of ability diversity that change this impact and create better classroom conditions for all students.

-   Students without disabilities view their involvement with peers with disabilities positively. They gain an increased appreciation and understanding of diversity and often improve self-esteem and behaviors.

While research makes it clear that inclusive education is a desirable, effective practice, some argue that educators are neither willing nor able to make inclusive education a reality. Numerous research studies have documented problems that include: (1) poor planning and preparation; (2) inadequate supports for students and teachers; and (3) negative and adversarial attitudes of educators.

Despite the fact that much segregated education exists, the movement toward inclusive education continues to grow--sometimes with major thrusts ahead, sometimes with retrenchment for awhile, and with a growth of quiet efforts on the part of individual schools and teachers. Several comprehensive studies have documented case studies of

individual schools moving to implement inclusive education, including O'Hearn Elementary School in Boston, Souhegan High School in New Hampshire, and Purcell Marion High School in Cincinnati. The National Center on Educational Restructuring and Inclusion conducted a national study (1995) of hundreds of schools throughout the United States that were implementing inclusive education. Sixteen states have engaged in statewide initiatives for inclusive education. Other  researchers and school change agents report that, when change efforts involve training, administrative leadership and support, in-class assistance, and other  special services, the  attitudes  of teachers are positive. Some teachers view inclusive education as building on their existing positive teaching practices. Initially, teachers are often afraid of including students with severe disabilities. However, as teachers come to know such students and work with them, they come to value the experience and would volunteer to teach such students again. Finally, most teachers agree with the concept of inclusive education but are afraid they do not have the skills to make it work. As they have positive experiences with good administrative support, they become more comfortable and positive.

While some courts have ruled in favor of segregated placements, typically following failed attempts to include a child in a regular class, most have ruled in favor of inclusive education. Courts have upheld the principle of least restrictive environment and have stated that schools must, in good faith, consider inclusive placement of all students, no matter the severity of the disability, and students and teachers must be provided necessary supports and supplementary services. While the courts allow costs, amount of teacher time, and impact on other students to be considered, the standards are so high that denying an inclusive placement based on these issues is rarely supported.

These related concepts--inclusive education, differentiated instruction, and detracking--are being used in an increasing number of school reform models. In some cases, the focus is explicit and clear. In others, it is more implied by the stated values of the approach. The Coalition of Essential Schools, for example, has identified 10 principles of effective schooling. Schools move away from the 50-minute class period in high schools and develop larger blocks of instructional time, in which teachers work as interdisciplinary teams to engage students in substantive learning activities. Students demonstrate learning through substantive portfolios and yearly demonstrations to parents, other students, and the larger community. Accelerated schools stimulate the use of challenging and engaging teaching, typically reserved for gifted students, for all students, particularly those with learning challenges. The goal is to accelerate, not slow down, learning for all students through exciting, authentic teaching techniques or powerful learning. Accelerated schools engage teachers, administrators, parents, and the community to work together in teams to develop improved learning strategies for all students.

The Comer School Development Program brings another important perspective. According to James Comer, a psychiatrist, children need a sense of safety, security, and welcome if they are to learn. In his school development program, schools develop teams to facilitate partnerships with parents and communities and an interdisciplinary mental health team consisting of teachers, a psychologist, a social worker, and others to deal with holistic needs of both students and families. In each of these models, inclusive education is not specifically articulated as a component. However, the values and visions upon which each model is based often lead schools to incorporate inclusive education as a component of their school reform efforts when they use these models.

Whole schooling is a school reform framework that incorporates inclusive education as a central component of effective schooling for all children. The model posits that the purpose of public schools is to create citizens for democracy and the achievement of personal best learning for all students. The model is based on eight principles:

1. Create learning spaces for all.

2. Empower citizens for democracy.

3. Include all in learning together.

4. Build a caring community.

5. Support.

6. Partner with families and the community.

7. Teach all using authentic, multilevel instruction.

8. Assess students to promote learning.

Throughout the world in recent decades, and very recently in the United States, standards-based reform has been initiated with a goal to improve outcomes for students in public schools. The No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), passed in 2002, initially aimed to have 100 percent of students pass standardized tests showing their proficiency in math and reading by the year 2014. (These goals later were reconsidered under the Obama administration.) In the United States, standards-based reform has been touted as a way of improving achievement and outcomes for all students, placing higher levels of accountability and expectations on public schools. In the United States, the NCLB law has come under increasing criticism as unrealistic and punitive, focusing on low levels of learning, limiting creativity and the education of the whole child.

Inclusive education can be viewed as both an extension of and, at the same time, in conflict with the concepts of standards-based reform and the laws designed for its implementation. On the one hand, many schools have decided that, if they are going to be evaluated on the performance of all students in the general education curriculum, students with disabilities need to be learning in general education classes, thus increasing their exposure and likelihood of doing well on standardized tests. On the other hand, standards-based reform identifies one set of expectations for all students. Thus, a fourth-grade student who is highly gifted, functioning on the eighth-grade level, will be expected to perform at the same level as a student with a cognitive disability, reading at the first-grade level. It is clear that, in this scenario, the gifted student is asked to perform far below her capacity, thus making the public school program irrelevant to her needs. The student with a cognitive disability is asked to function at a level far above his capacity. The result will be frustration and humiliation. For this student, no matter what effort he puts forth, he will be considered a failure. In this regard, NCLB and inclusive schooling could be seen as at odds with one another.

The movement toward inclusive education is truly international in thrust. In 1994, the country members of the United Nations adopted the Salamanca Statement, which articulated the rights of individuals with disabilities in society. This document particularly focused on schools and supported the concept and practice of inclusive education and called on member nations to use the document to reform their schools in this direction.

The idea of inclusive schooling can be expected to continue as a movement for reform in education. Clearly, the concept is connected at its essence with the concept of democracy. It is not surprising, consequently, to find that inclusive education is most practiced in countries that have a democratic political tradition and that segregated schooling is most firmly entrenched in authoritarian regimes.

One indicator of this trend has been the development of National Inclusive Schools Week in the United States, which has been growing in visibility since 2001 (see www. inclusiveschools.org). According to its Web site:

National Inclusive Schools Week highlights and celebrates the progress of our nation's schools in providing a supportive and quality education to an increasingly diverse student population, including students with disabilities, those from low socio-economic backgrounds, and English language learners. The week also provides an important opportunity for educators, students, and parents to discuss what else needs to be done in order to ensure that their schools continue to improve their ability to successfully educate all children.

For those interested in the quality of schooling for students with wide ranges of abilities, monitoring the restructuring of schools to incorporate inclusive education as a central component may be one measure to watch in the coming years.

References:

McGregor,  Gail, and  R. Timm  Vogelsberg, Inclusive  Schooling  Practices: Pedagogical  and Re- search Foundations:  A Synthesis of the Literature that Informs Best Practices. Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes, 1999.

National Center on Educational Restructuring and Inclusion, National Study of Inclusive Education. New York: The Center, 1995.

Peterson, J. Michael, and Mishael M. Hittie,  Inclusive Teaching: The Journey towards E?ective Schooling for All Learners, 2d ed. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 2009.

Sapon-Shevin, Mara, Widening  the Circle: The Power of Inclusive  Classrooms.  Boston: Beacon Press, 2007.

Tomlinson, Carol Ann, Kay Brimijoin, and Lane Narvaez, The Differentiated  School: Making Revolutionary Changes in Teaching and Learning. Alexandria, VA: ASCD, 2008.

Vitello, Stanley J., and Dennis E. Mithaug, eds., Inclusive Schooling: National and International Perspectives, Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

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