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	Mexican Financial Crisis of 1994

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	▪	Algerian War of Independence
	▪	Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome
	▪	African American Experience (1865-1950)
	▪	The Jonah Kit by Ian Watson
	▪	Stephen Hawking
	▪	Chinua Achebe
	▪	Fossil Fuel Reserves
	▪	World Trade Organization
	▪	Effects of Acid Rain

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▪

APEC


	Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation

	Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC) is no longer "talk only". It is an institutionalized forum of 18 sovereign nation-states: the United States, Canada, Mexico and Chile on the American shore of the Pacific, Japan, South Korea, the People's Republic of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, the Philippines, Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia, Singapore, Malaysia and Thailand, on the Asian shore, and Australia, New Zealand and the Pacific Islands in the South Pacific. The principal item of its agenda is to liberalize intraregional trade and investment flows with a target for free trade by 2010/ 2015/ 2020.

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▪	Adam Smith


	Adam Smith

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▪	Alfred Marshall


	Economics of Alfred Marshall

	Marshall's restatement of classical doctrine is far more difficult of summary, even in its most general form, than the Ricardian analysis. Most of it, indeed, must await the setting of later discussions to become possible of presentation within practicable limits of space. Along with his predecessors, Marshall is a price economist, a demand-and-supply economist, and, in principle and emphasis, a supply and cost-of-production economist. The demand aspects of his analysis are, without serious difficulty, to be articulated with the little that classical doctrine had to say in this regard.

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▪	Antitrust Policy


	U.S. Antitrust Policy

	U.S. antitrust policy is not based on any single, coherent objective or rationale. There are two reasons for this. One is the diversity of its sources; the other stems from ideological confusions about competitive markets and the realities that provoked antitrust legislation. The diverse sources include the policy's origins in the English common law, the Sherman Act of 1890 based on that common law, the legislation of 1914--the Clayton and FTC Acts--which recognized some tendencies for free competition to break down, the judicial gloss put on the legislation, which has taken on a life of its own, and most recently, the intrusion of economic theory that has come to dominate enforcement policy. This diversity of origins brings with it ideological conflicts between its legislative, judicial, bureaucratic, and academic authors.

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▪	Austrian School Liberalism


	Liberalism of the Austrian School

	An examination of the philosophical foundations of the Austrian School's liberalism must consider both its approach to the problem of the nature and role of political philosophy in society, and the position of political philosophy within the framework of the social sciences. Naturally this involves an appraisal of the Austrian approach vis-�-vis the various tendencies of constructivist rationalism, but also in comparison with the philosophical-political trends that proposed to 'rehabilitate' the practical function of political philosophy. Critique of the tradition of constructivist rationalism is-as has been seen-a constant and essential feature of the work of the Austrian School. No less important to the present discussion, especially in view of the problem of modernity, is some reference to elements that distinguish the Austrian School from other contemporary attempts to rehabilitate political philosophy as scientia practica.

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▪	Budget Deficit


	Federal Budget Deficit

	Few topics in American politics are more discussed and less understood than the federal budget deficit. We frequently hear that deficit reduction is vital to our prosperity, but we rarely hear why this might be so. The deficit is blamed for all manner of economic ills, ranging from high interest rates to unemployment to the trade deficit to the low rate of national saving to low productivity growth--whichever seems most crucial at the moment--but little attention is paid to why it might have any of these effects.

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▪	Classical Liberalism


	Classical Liberal Perspective

	Classical Liberalism envisions society as an aggregation of autonomous individuals seeking to pursue their private interests. Ideally, all social interaction should consist of voluntary exchanges among persons, and every individual has the right to be free from the arbitrary exercise of power. With its focus on individual choice as the primary determinant of social outcomes, Classical Liberalism is ideally suited for expression in the form of economic theory. In fact, the historical development of Classical Liberalism closely aligns with the history of economic thought, starting with classical political economy, continuing with the Austrian branch of neoclassical economics, and culminating in a variety of current bodies of thought including neo-Austrian economics, public choice theory, new classical economics, law and economics, new institutional economics, constitutional economics, libertarianism, supply-side economics, monetarism, and property-rights theory.

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▪	Division of Labor


	Division of Labor

	Human life and well-being depend on the production of wealth. The production of wealth vitally depends on the division of labor, that is, a system of production in which the labor required to support human life and well-being is broken down into separate, distinct occupations. As we have seen, under a system of division of labor, the individual lives by producing, or helping to produce, just one thing or at most a very few things, and is supplied by the labor of others for the far greater part of his needs.

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▪	Economic Growth


	Economic Growth

	Economic growth can come from a number of sources. It can occur as a consequence of rising population, as has been common throughout recorded history, although increasing output in this way does not necessarily result in any improvement in living standards. The kind of growth which is of much greater importance economically is the sort which leads to higher output per head, or increasing productivity. This is the only way in which rising standards of living can be achieved.

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▪	Economics and Natural Resources


	Economics and Natural Resources

	The potential for economic progress is in no way limited by any fundamental lack of natural resources. Despite the claims so often made that we are in danger of running out of natural resources, the fact is that the world is made out of natural resources � out of solidly packed natural resources, extending from the upper limits of its atmosphere to its very center, four thousand miles down. This is so because the entire mass of the earth is made of nothing but chemical elements, all of which are natural resources. For example, the earth's core is composed mainly of iron and nickel � millions of cubic miles of iron and nickel. Its oceans and atmosphere are composed of millions of cubic miles of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, and carbon, and of lesser, but still enormous, quantities of practically every other element.

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▪	Economics of War


	Economics of War

	As Admiral Yamamoto feared, the Japanese victory at Pearl Harbor awakened a sleeping giant and filled it with an awful rage. The last of the dissension that had disabled the United States melted away, and strong public support for the war, mixed with a perceived danger of invasion, allowed the government to expand its role dramatically. The limited Keynesianism of the later New Deal gave way to a modified command economy, as the federal government obtained a domination of the economy unprecedented in American history. 1 The sweeping grant of power to an experienced national leadership with an expressed commitment to limiting war profits augured well for the success of the antiprofiteering effort. Mobilizing American industry for World War II was an enormous task. America's role in the second great conflict of the century was certain to exceed its earlier participation by a large margin, but it was obvious that the United States would rely heavily on its traditional strategy of overwhelming its enemies with its vastly superior productive capacity. The economic problems associated with war mobilization would differ in degree, but they would generally correspond to earlier experiences. Many of the techniques used to equalize sacrifice and to prevent swollen fortunes during the Great War could be used again. These included excess profits taxation, price controls, luxury taxes, and rationing.

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▪	Economy of Learning and Motion


	Economy of Learning and Motion

	The division of labor increases the efficiency of the processes of learning and motion that are entailed in production. First, under the division of labor, the individual who learns an occupation is able to apply his learning repeatedly, because he devotes his full working time to that occupation. The effect of this repetition is that he becomes extremely proficient in the use of his knowledge. In effect, he subconsciously automatizes the knowledge-he learns it so well that he no longer has to think things out step by step, as one does before one has the necessary experience or after one has been away from a field for a long time. A worker who is constantly practiced in his work can obviously accomplish a great deal more in the same time than one who is not. Outside the division of labor, on the other hand, even in cases in which people might be able to acquire sufficient knowledge to accomplish something, they would most likely not have sufficient occasion to use that knowledge to become proficient in its use.

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▪	End of Economic growth


	The End of American Economic Growth

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▪	Foundations of Economics


	Foundations of Economics

	Economics has been defined in a variety of ways. In the nineteenth century it was typically defined as the science of wealth or of exchangeable wealth. In the twentieth century, it has typically been defined as the science that studies the allocation of scarce means among competing ends. The importance of economics derives from the specific importance of wealth � of material goods � to human life and well-being. Obviously, human life depends on food, clothing, and shelter. Moreover, experience shows that there is no limit to the amount of wealth that practically all civilized men and women desire, and that the greatest part of their waking hours is actually spent in efforts to acquire it � namely, in efforts to earn a living.

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▪	Freedom of Competition


	Freedom of Competition

	If there is anything for which capitalism is more strongly denounced than its competition, it is its alleged lack of competition and tendencies toward monopoly. These denunciations stem in large part from a failure properly to understand the meaning of freedom of competition and of monopoly. The terms are usually understood in the light of the anarchic rather than of the rational concept of freedom. According to the rational concept of freedom, of course, freedom means the absence of the initiation of physical force - in particular, on the part of the government. Viewed in a positive light, freedom is the freedom to do whatever one is otherwise capable of doing, unconstrained by the initiation of physical force.

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▪	Geographic Specialization of Economic Activities


	Geographic Specialization

	A special aspect of individuals concentrating on what they do best is the more efficient utilization of land and natural resources. What an individual does best depends not only on his intellectual and bodily endowments, but also on the external conditions of nature that confront him. An individual living in a tropical climate, say, is able to grow tropical fruits or vegetables far more easily than someone living in a temperate climate, if the latter can grow them at all. An individual living close to rich deposits of iron ore, say, is able to mine such ore far more easily than someone not living close to such deposits, if the latter can mine iron ore at all.

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▪	Global Economy


	Global Economy

	The global economy can be represented in various ways, and broken down in various ways. It is inseparable from the geography and ecology of Earth, e.g. ecoregions which represent different agricultural and resource extraction opportunities.

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▪	Government and Market


	Governmental Market Regulation

	From the Classical Liberal perspective, government in modern societies neither promotes the public interest nor serves as benevolent guardian protecting the property and rights of all citizens. Just the opposite is true; government is a predatory oppressor, extorting money from citizens and limiting their freedom. Moreover, government is the primary tool by which powerful groups secure their privileges and oppress their fellow citizens. At best, government is an inefficient bureaucracy, squandering resources while providing services that, for the most part, are either unnecessary or could have been produced in the private sector at lower cost.

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▪	Governmental Monopoly


	Govermental Monopoly

	Government-owned and government-subsidized enterprises represent monopoly, in that markets or parts of markets are reserved to their exclusive possession by means of the initiation of physical force. Government-subsidized enterprises, of course, are a category which includes all government-owned enterprises, inasmuch as the initial resources of government-owned enterprises are provided by the government and their subsequent losses are covered by the government.

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▪	History of Economics


	History of Economics

	Some general observations about the history of economics are in order before the reader faces the diversity of detail that makes up the universe of history. Unlike general history or economic history, the history of economics does not deal with events but with ideas. Thus what Gibbon said of general history -that it is "little more than the register of the crimes, follies, and misfortunes of mankind" -- does not directly apply to the history of ideas, which reflects general history only after the latter has passed through the filter of the human mind.

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▪	Impact of Macroeconomics


	Macroeconomic Impact on Business

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▪	Inflation and Unemployment


	Combating Inflation and Unemployment

	Macroeconomic instability, also known as the business cycle, has plagued Western nations since the beginning of industrialization. Inflationary periods lead to economic and political dislocations that jeopardize prosperity and social order. Recessions impose severe hardship in terms of unemployment, crime, and a plethora of unmet human needs. To protect themselves against the insecurity caused by economic instability, individuals, unions, corporations, and government have sought to suppress the forces of market competition and, in so doing, have transformed the institutional structure of modern societies.

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▪	Japanese Economics


	Japanese Economics

	Japanese economists could not continue societal activities during the closing years of the Asian and Pacific War (1937-45) and the chaotic period right after Japan lost the war. After this period, Japanese scholars gradually built up the domestic system of scientific research accommodated to the new post-war environment, including the Science Council of Japan (JSC) and the Union of National Economic Associations in Japan (UNEAJ).

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▪	Keynes vs Monetarists


	Keynsian Vs Monetarist Economics

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▪	Keynesian Economics


	Keynesian Economics

	Lord Keynes was born in 1883 and died in 1946. This volume was conceived as a tribute to the man and the economist. But it is more than that. We intend to appraise Keynes' contributions to economics: to add up the gains and to explore the weaknesses. A volume on Keynesian economics, written mainly by Keynes' followers, naturally would be largely panegyric. But there is criticism also--both by the followers and by the minority of writers in this volume who might not be classed as Keynesian. These critics, however, unlike many of the detractors of Keynes, have read and absorbed the General Theory. Even the most enthusiastic imbibers at the Keynesian fountain will find impurities and indigestible and incongruous substances - examine the essays by Messrs. Colm, Smithies, and Samuelson in this volume, for example.

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▪	Law of the Sea


	Law of the Sea Treaty

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▪	Malthus�s Doctrine


	Economics of Thomas Robert Malthus

	The economics of Thomas Robert Malthus (1766-1834) fall into two parts, one devoted to population problems and the other to the inadequacy of aggregate demand. The former are discussed in An Essay on the Principle of Population, published in 1798, whereas the deficiency of general demand forms the subject of Malthus's Principles of Political Economy, which appeared more than twenty years later in 1820. For a long time Malthus's fame was mainly derived from the Essay, the basic idea of which was endorsed by Ricardo and Mill. Only since the 1930s, when aggregate demand has once more been recognized as constituting a central problem in economics, has Malthus come into his own as the author of the Principles and received recognition as a forerunner of modern thought.

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▪	Marginalism


	Marginal Analysis

	Conventional economics as exemplified by John Stuart Mill's writings, against which Marx and his followers launched their attack, did not stand still but underwent during the closing decades of the nineteenth century a profound transformation often designated as the "marginal revolution."

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▪	Marxist Economics


	Marxist Economics

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▪	Medieval Economics


	Medieval Economic Thought

	The end of the ancient world marks the beginning of the Middle Ages, which in turn were to last until the Renaissance opened up the modern era in history, that is, broadly speaking, until the year 1500. But when exactly did the ancient world come to an end? This is a question about which well-informed people have different views. The selection of landmarks to signal the end of one epoch and the beginning of another often involves an element of discretion. Lines are blurred as one period runs into the other. History is like a house that has many windows, and the year chosen as the boundary line will depend upon the view of the observer.

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▪	Mill�s Liberalism


	Economics of John Stuart Mill

	Unlike Malthus and Ricardo, John Stuart Mill (1806-73) left his mark not only on economics but on philosophy and politics as well. To this day students of logic are made to wrestle with his canons of induction, and his political thought posed questions still relevant to all to whom freedom is a vital issue. With Mill's claim to intellectual preeminence so widely staked, it is not surprising that he brought to his work in economics a perspective shared by few other nineteenth-century economists. It was this wider concern with man's position in the cosmos and in society, with the rules of his thought and of his actions, that gave new direction and focus to Mill's contributions to economics. In the broad vista of Mill's thought, purely economic tests stressing the growth of production or of efficiency give way to new and more comprehensive ones in which the quality of life and the full development of the individual stand out. Mill was a technical economist, and a master one, but his technical economics was informed by the concerns of the social philosopher.

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▪	Modern Liberalism


	Modern Liberal Perspective

	The roots of Modern Liberalism lie deep in the tradition of Classical Liberalism. Although early Classical Liberal theorists such as John Locke and Adam Smith expressed reservations about the wisdom of sole reliance on the market to organize society, their commitment to individual liberty and private property precluded any significant action by government. With the emergence of Radical and Conservative challenges to capitalism, however, came a growing perception that laissez-faire policies were incapable of generating widespread political support. In response to this problem, Modern Liberalism emerged as a combination of appealing elements from the existing ideological perspectives. This eclectic and hybrid nature contributed greatly to its flexibility and resilience. As a result, Modern Liberals dominated for much of the twentieth century as they sought to promote social justice while preserving both private property and democracy.

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▪	Money, Gold and Inflation


	Money, Gold and Inflation

	The quantity theory of money, as developed earlier in this book, shows that the cause of generally rising prices is an increase in the quantity of money. More specifically, it shows that the cause is an increase in the quantity of money at a rate more rapid than the increase in the supply of gold and silver. The increase in the supply of gold and silver, being itself a by-product of the general increase in the ability to produce, would show no tendency regularly or significantly to outstrip the increase in the supply of the mass of ordinary commodities, and to that extent would be incapable of causing a sustained significant rise in prices. In addition, since government intervention into the monetary system is what has been responsible for the quantity of money being able to increase more rapidly than the increase in the supply of gold and silver, the quantity theory of money implies that what is responsible for the problem of a persistent significant rise in prices is an increase in the quantity of money caused by the government.

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▪	Monopolism


	Monopolism

	Monopoly exists insofar as the freedom of competition is violated, with the freedom of competition being understood as the absence of the initiation of physical force as the preventive of competition. Where there is no initiation of physical force to violate the freedom of competition, there is no monopoly. The freedom of competition is violated only insofar as individuals are excluded from markets or parts of markets by means of the initiation of physical force. Monopoly is thus a market or part of a market reserved to the exclusive possession of one or more sellers by means of the initiation of physical force. It is thus something imposed upon the market from without - by the government.

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▪	Monopoly Capital


	Monopoly Capital Theory

	The root of the concept of monopoly capital is Rudolf Hilferding's pioneering book Finance Capital: A Study of the Latest Phase of Capitalist Development, originally published in 1910. In this book Hilferding aimed to develop Karl Marx's analysis of the processes of concentration and centralization of capital, as well as of the roles of competition and credit within these processes. According to Hilferding, a twofold transformation in its economic appearance gives capitalism the form of finance capital. This transformation is said to be the outcome of processes that tend, on the one hand, to abolish competition through the formation of cartels and trusts, and on the other, to promote increasingly intimate relations between bank capital and industrial capital, in which the former becomes the dominant partner.

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▪	Multinationals


	Multinational Corporations

	Multinationals became the leading driver of the integration of the global economy. During the 1980s the average annual growth rate for FDI outflows reached 14 percent. Between 1996 and 2000 it reached 40 percent per annum. This was far faster than both the annual growth of world exports (4.2 percent) and of world output (1.2 percent). The huge sums of multinational investment were the result of cross-border mergers and acquisitions which had become the principal vehicle for FDI. These were driven by the new opportunities for globalization, Internet-related technological change, and the very high levels of stock valuation seen in global equity markets. The total stock of world FDI reached $6.8 trillion by 2001, before stagnating over the following two years as world share prices fell.

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▪

Oligopoly


	Business Oligopolies

	The markets on which it is possible to define neither demand functions nor supply functions for the individual firms are those on which specific sellers or buyers sell or buy considerable fractions of the total market volume, so that the other sellers and buyers are affected materially by what single firms are doing. Markets on which a unique buyer faces a unique seller also fall in this category. In other words, the problem is that of oligopoly, oligopsony, and bilateral monopoly, and, of course, also of markets which are oligopsonistic on the demand side and oligopolistic on the supply side. All these markets are characterized by "fewness."

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▪	Political Economy History


	The History of Political Economy

	Current political and economic issues cannot be fully understood without an appreciation of the historical evolution of both institutions and ideas. Although the history of political economy remains obscure for most citizens, many of its ideas have become part of the collective wisdom of society. Before beginning a survey of political economy, a word of caution is in order. All history is subject to interpretation, and the history of ideas is particularly controversial. No single interpretation of the history of political economy commands universal agreement.

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▪	Political Economy and State Security


	Political Economy

	Classical political economy was forged on the anvil of war. The Seven Years' War had barely ended when Smith published The Wealth of Nations, and the Napoleonic Wars were the backdrop of discussion in Malthus's Essay and Ricardo's Principles, Only John Stuart Mill and the later classicals had the luxury of reflecting on international conflict with the detachment born of the nineteenth-century Pax Britannica.

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▪	Political Radicalism


	Radical Perspective of Political Economy

	Although Radical ideas can be traced to antiquity, modern Radicalism was born out of conflict between the democratic aspirations of the Enlightenment and the emerging power of private property rights. Radicals claimed that public control of production was essential to attaining the Enlightenment values of freedom, equality, and justice. During the nineteenth century, as Classical Liberalism became increasingly pessimistic and anti-egalitarian, Radicalism exerted an immense influence among the working class and intellectuals. It raised the possibility of transcending capitalism to achieve a more humane, cooperative society. The specter of socialism was sufficiently threatening to defenders of private property to trigger major revisions in liberal theory and policies. Thus, while Radicalism's direct influence in the United States and Western Europe has been minimal, it has indirectly changed the contours of society by pushing liberalism toward acceptance of the welfare state and government regulation of business.

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▪	Post-Marxian Socialist Economics


	Socialist Economic Thought after Marx

	The main variants of socialist thought since the 1880 s may be classified under the headings of German revisionism, French syndicalism, Soviet Marxism, and British Fabianism. There were other, minor variants known as Austro- and Neo-Marxism, from which indeed stemmed a number of contributions to economic thought.

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▪	Poverty and Inequality


	Coping with Poverty and Inequality

	The persistence of poverty amidst affluence is one of the most troubling aspects of modern societies. Even in the nineteenth century, the concentration of wealth and power led to public hostility toward big business, paving the way for increased regulation of the economy. In the early twentieth century, Congress legislated progressive income and inheritance taxes. After the Great Depression, even stronger efforts were made to address the problems of poverty and inequality. Yet despite the growth of the welfare state, no significant change in the distribution of income has been accomplished. In fact, during the last two decades, income inequality increased significantly both within and among countries.

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▪	Procapitalist Economics


	Precapitalist Economics

	It should not be surprising that such a large number of those who are recognized as important economists are, at the same time, leading advocates of capitalism. To the extent that an economist really understands the principles governing economic life, and desires that human beings live and prosper, he can hardly fail to be an advocate of capitalism.

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▪	Ricardian Economics


	Economics of David Ricardo

	To be a son who rebels against parental authority may be part of the human condition. It is debatable whether this is a burden that rests more heavily on sons destined to attain greatness in later life or whether it is a common experience of ordinary people. With the exception of Adam Smith, who never saw his father, all the great classical economists had their share of rebellion against parental authority. Like Malthus before him and John Stuart Mill after him, Ricardo found himself only after having come to terms with his father. Ricardo's emancipation from the benevolent despotism of his father took the form of an outright though temporary break with his family and a permanent alienation from the faith of his ancestors. No one knows if Ricardo's early confrontation with authority in the microcosm of his personal life turned him into the advocate of laissez faire that he was to become later, one much more unqualifiedly attached to laissez faire than were Malthus and Mill, who never broke the ties to their fathers openly and abruptly.

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▪	The Role of Wealth


	The Role of Wealth

	Wealth is material goods made by man. It is houses and automobiles, piles of lumber and bars of copper, steel mills and pipelines, foodstuffs and clothing. It is also land and natural resources in the ground insofar as man has made them useable and accessible. Man, of course, does not make the material stuff of land and natural resources, but he certainly does create their character as wealth.

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▪	World Trade Organization


	World Trade Organization (WTO)

	As the principal institution with responsibility for the multilateral trading system, the WTO has the same status as institutions such as the World Bank and the IMF. The WTO has legal personality and has been accorded privileges and immunities similar to those accorded to the specialized UN agencies. It is headed by a Ministerial Conference of all Members, meeting at least once every two years. More frequent participation by trade ministers than occurred in the GATT context is intended to strengthen the political guidance of the WTO and enhance the prominence and credibility of its rules in domestic political arenas. It can be noted, however, that past experience of the GATT with Ministerial meetings suggests that these can easily be an inefficient use of the time of many Ministers from smaller trading nations. This is because in negotiations the controversial issues tend to be solved at the last moment and require agreement between the major players. The latter may take a significant amount of time to strike a deal between themselves, thereby marginalizing the potential for participation by Ministers of smaller countries.

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