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The discipline of organizational communication traces its roots through the discipline of rhetoric back to the orators of Ancient Greece and Rome, such as Aristotle, Cicero and Quintilian.

The modern field often finds its more recent lineage through the business information, business communication, and early mass communication studies published in the 1930s through the 1950s. Until then, organizational communication as a discipline existed primarily as a few professors within speech departments who had a particular interest in speaking and writing in business settings.

Through the WWII and post-war years, particularly 1942 through about 1949, studies of effective communication practices in group and organizational settings became particularly salient. Great numbers of servicemen (and some service women) underwent communication training, first in the military, and then in colleges and universities. A concern with effectiveness in transmitting messages soon broadened into concern with environmental factors, characteristics of the people involved in the communicative activity, and differences in utility of different transmission media.

Several seminal publications stand out as works broadening the scope and recognizing the importance of communication in the organizing process, and in using the term "organizational communication." Nobel Laureate Herbert Simon wrote in 1945 about "organization communications systems", saying "communication is absolutely essential to organizations."

In 1951 Bavelas and Barrett wrote "An Experimental Approach to Organizational Communication" in which they stated that communication "is the essence of organized activity."

In 1953 the economist Kenneth Boulding wrote "The Organizational Revolution: A Study in the Ethics of Economic Organization." While this work directly addressed the economic issues facing organizations, in it he questions the ethical and moral issues underlying their power, and maintains that an "organization consists of a system of communication."

Then in 1954, a young Chris Argyris published "Personality and Organization." This careful and research-based book attacked many things, but singled out "organizational communication" for special attention. Argyris made the case that passed for organizational communication at the time was based on unstated and indefensible propositions such as "management knows best" and "workers are inherently stupid and lazy." He accused the emerging field of relying on untested gimmicks designed to trick employees into doing management's will.

Communication in the business world is imperative for success. This is especially true for interpersonal communication, communication between management and staff, and for practically every other contact a business has, both within its own establishment and the outside world. The process of communication is very complex and is a major factor in the success of a company. This paper will focus on the different types of communication, including verbal and non-verbal, listening and responding, and physical and personal factors that influence successful communication.

In order to have successful communication, one must understand verbal and non-verbal communication. Interpersonal skills start with the understanding of verbal and non-verbal communication. Verbal cues are dependent on language usage. "Sometimes the message they carry is incomplete or even entirely different from our intended meaning" (Adler p. 70). In society, we can look at different dialects as a barrier. A comparative example of this is the United States, Canada, and England where we all speak the English language but with several differences. Even though all three countries speak the same language, deciphering the word meaning dialects can be problematic. Different use of words within countries can make it impossible to understand the original message. Adler states, "the most basic language problems involve misunderstandings" (Alder p. 70). For example, traveling to Europe our group experienced a verbal miscommunication when asking for a restroom. We were informed that they have no such thing. A co-worker in our group who has been to Europe several times explained that they are referred to as "toilets." After that explanation we then understood that difference in words and were able to successfully find our restrooms. In the classroom we practiced an exercise in small groups that was called Active Listening. During the interaction of this exercise the group was given sentences to paraphrase. It was interesting to hear the different meanings to the same words. In the exercise we saw how verbal interaction was misconstrued. It is these types of misunderstandings, which happen globally that, can take place in an organization and lead to unsuccessful communication.

Language can clearly upset people. "It can motivate, inspire and amuse audiences" (Alder p.76). To avoid upsetting the audience, you should not use, "terms that seem to be objective but actually conceal an emotional bias" (Adler p.76). For instance, in the workplace, an employee pondering of a problem might cause a boss to say, "You do not look busy". Upon hearing this, the employee may interpret this to mean he she is not working hard enough and get upset. This is a misconception of non-verbal messages.

Non-verbal cues are "those expressions of emotions and attitudes towards another person and regulating the interaction between people" (Timm p.41). Categories of non-verbal communications includes, eye movements, vocal sounds, posture, gestures, proximity, environment and facial expressions (D'Aprix 1996). Often we send non-verbal cues, which are not intended to have an effect on the listeners, however, a message is received.

Alder states, "You can't judge a book from its cover" (Alder p.85). However, our first perception is how we see something, which is a part of non-verbal messages. At my place of business we have a client who comes into the office looking like a bag lady. When she booked a forty five thousand dollar cruise we all thought she had lost her mind. Several days later when she returned to our office and paid for her trip in full, it was discovered she is a multimillionaire and is now one of our best clients. Our initial perception of her was based solely on her appearance, which communicated a negative part of non-verbal message. Verbal and non-verbal skills are not the only way to successful communication; listening and responding also play major roles in the communication process.

Often we hear, but do not listen to someone. "The process we call hearing is a purely physical activity by which acoustic energy in the form of sound waves is changed mechanical and electrochemical energy which the brain can understand" (Timm p.248). Hearing is not the same as listening. "Furthermore, many of the most important facets of your life are greatly influenced by your skills or lack of skill in listening " (p.30). Unfortunately, few people are actually good at listening. Bolton states, "Researchers claim that 75 percent of oral communication is ignored, misunderstood, or quickly forgotten" (p.30). Leaders everywhere need to listen to employees and talk openly with them to have successful working relationships. (Bolton 1979).

"Listening refers to the psychological process which allows us to attach meaning to the patterns of energy we hear" (Timm p.248). Being an effective listener is a skill that can be challenging for many since there are several points that can hinder listening. Alder states, "Most workers are poor listeners for a variety of reasons, physiological, environment, attitudinal, sociocultural, and educational" (Alder p. 120). This area within the employee needs strengthening because, communication and effective listening skills play a large role in business from the first time an applicant approaches a business for employment. In at least one-study potential employers weighed communication skills and listening skills more heavily than were grade point averages, degrees, or even technical skills in determining whether or not to hire entry-level applicants (Wardroe 1994).

Stress, selective listening, and time constraints, can all be a barrier to effective listening. If a manager is totally occupied with other things he she is probably only hearing you. This can cause an organization to have multiple problems. It is evident someone is listening to you by the way they respond. Many people will respond to you by forming a question, to ensure that communication is clear.

Most people listen to others for many reasons, whether it is helping a friend with problems, instructions or for entertainment. The ways people respond when they are listening can help them receive clearer information. Adler categorizes these as, passive listening, questioning and paraphrasing. When examining the categories, paraphrasing seems to be most used within organizations.

Recapping is a form of paraphrasing. "Paraphrasing occurs when you restate a speaker's ideas in your own words, to make sure that you have understood them correctly and to show the other person that fact" (Adler p. 111). An example, I recap everything when I am completed with a travel reservation. I will ask my clients to, let me read back to them what I have heard to see if this is correct. This is one of the most important ways to avoid costly mistakes. I have come to find that in addition to recapping, following up with a fax that the passenger is required to sign successfully improves the communication process.

Physical and personal factors also influence communication. "Organizational design influence physical factors, which deals with the layout of the office, networks for communication, and the media selected for the message" (D'Aprix, p 23). The design of the company must be based on what they are trying to achieve. Through working at several companies, seeing several layouts that seem typical, workers are in the office with partitioned walls; managers have outer offices, some with windows; and the general manager has the largest, most pretentious office space. The communications are clear and very structured. In this environment even though we are all in the same proximity, the method of communication is mostly through computers, E-mail, voice-mail and memos. For example, conducting a board meeting in a cold, gloomy and damp atmosphere, will not be conducive to achieving the groups' goals. The classroom is an example of where this is also visible. In the classroom setting a circle that includes the facilitator is more conducive because we can all have eye contact and feel like a group. The office I work in has a physical factor that makes doing your job problematical. For three years I have worked each winter with no heat in the office. Because of this environment, it has created sub-standard employee morale. Along with physical factors, personal factors play a major role in communication.

Personal factors can hinder communication. Adler states, "Personal concerns can make it difficult to keep your mind on the subject at hand" (Alder p. 105). Some organizations offer counseling services to employees to help solve personal strife that they may experience. If an employee is having marital problems causing him her to be upset, and gets a poor review on the same day, this could cause negative effects on his her future work. This is important to keep in mind when having communication....

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