International Norms Essay ⋆ Political Science Essay Examples ⋆ EssayEmpire

International norms provide a measure of continuity and stability to relations between states and transnational actors as they constitute authoritatively endorsed, articulated ideas and beliefs concerning some aspect of political life beyond that of domestic systems of governance. But since the boundaries between national and international phenomena have been significantly relaxed in recent years, norms that evolve and are disseminated across countries at the same time seem increasingly important to the inner life of most contemporary societies. Regardless of the level of governance, norms can be described as the micro foundations of political institutions.

This article examines international norms in five areas. After a brief introduction to the legacy of the term, three phases of the life cycle of an international norm are discussed, namely, its origins, its modes of operation, and its repercussions. The article ends by evaluating the added value of this term and its related field of research to political science overall.

Legacy

In legal science, norm is used to denote a written or unwritten rule that forms part of a system of law in that it has normative power or authority. The term was later borrowed by sociologists, among them Émile Durkheim, to describe intersubjectively shared understandings and expectations of behavior within a particular community of individuals. Both the legal and the sociological concepts of norm, but especially the latter, had profound effects on political research in the twentieth century.

In the 1980s and 1990s, a theoretical current in the social sciences, constructivism, emerged to confront the perceived hegemony of rationalistic theories of politics and political processes. In a series of theoretical debates raging in the study of political organization, public policy formation, and international relations, a rationalist logic of consequences associated with preference-ordering actors was juxtaposed to a constructivist logic of appropriateness, in turn associated with an idea of social acceptance. Much empirical research was conducted with a view of gleaning which of the two types of explanations would hold sway in a particular political and social context.

The term international norms predates the rationalist-constructivist debate but has thrived in the latter. In part by rendering problematic certain Realpolitik assumptions related to the centrality of material power resources and nation-state autonomy, it has served as a common denominator for a wide range of scholarship along the domestic-foreign frontier. Some of this research was charged with vast questions concerning the key characteristics of the international system or sovereignty. Other studies, more modest in scope but often equally illuminating, were devoted to the post-1945 human rights regime, United Nations sanctions instruments, and spread of prescriptive ideas concerning environmental standards or women’s rights.

Origins

Studies on the creation and early diffusion of international norms have gained momentum in recent years, as scholars have begun to question the outcomes of predominantly rationalistic approaches oriented toward interest-based conflict analysis or bargaining processes. In 1996, Martha Finnemore made an especially significant contribution in this respect in that she theorized the relationship between norms and institutional development but also provided three short historical case studies devoted to the rise of the United Nations Education and Science Committee, the evolution of the International Red Cross, and the transfer of the war on poverty from U.S. President Johnson’s administration to the World Bank by former Secretary of States (and incumbent World Bank President) McNamara. Scholars subsequently explored other examples of governments being prepared, under certain (historical) circumstances, to commit to some universal, normative purpose and at the same time accept the costs in terms of expenses and partial loss of sovereignty. Illustrating this phenomenon, empirical studies have described instances of norms cascades, during which some set of ideas about a particularly prominent problem or solution (or both) is almost universally accepted as urgently requiring a response by the international community of states.

Modes Of Operation

Norms cascades remain relatively unusual and restricted to problems that are considered particularly pressing (e.g., antiterrorism measures following the 9/11 attacks in the United States) or proposed solutions that are universally embraced. International norms are otherwise disseminated by more complex mechanisms, which subsequently affect their respective modes of operation. In fact, the incorporation of international norms at the domestic level may be swift or slow, haphazard or consistent, and met with strong resistance or with overwhelming enthusiasm.

Important factors identified by scholars for explaining such different responses are whether the relevant political decision makers find the norm in question conducive to their own agendas, whether a large enough coalition supports it in society at large, whether it can be conveniently plugged into existing legislation and institutional arrangements, and whether implementation is costly. The matter of who will be assigned to interpret and administer the application of the norm is also potentially significant, as is the scope of the latter’s mandate.

Repercussions

The literature on nor m repercussions examines the vexed question of direct and indirect consequences and of compliance and the eventual effectiveness of international norms. Whereas this type of research has a long lineage going back to work on the League of Nations, the General Agreement on Tar iffs and Trade, and the early United Nations system, recent contributions are typically based on more sophisticated methodologies. Empirical studies have demonstrated that diplomats and government representatives at times are socialized into a set of norms and that transnational advocacy groups often help ensure implementation. Whether such processes as a rule affect the foreign policy behavior of resourceful states on major policy issues remains disputed, although with many scholars’ insisting that only legally binding obligations are likely to sway governments or that nor m compliance ultimately conforms to underlying power relations.

The Added Value For Political Research

A shift can be noted away from the rationalist-constructivist debate of the past two decades to a reengagement with the study of law, therefore reinvigorating the legal concept of norms in political research. But while Realpolitik skepticism of the predominantly sociological concept of nor ms thus indirectly is taken into account, the analytical gains made in recent scholarship will remain. The study of international norms provides a positive illustration of interdisciplinary research involving the disciplines of economics, sociology, and law and an example of how policy issues fruitfully can be approached through a transnational conceptual lens. A third advantage of the field is that the study of international norms is well situated to bridge the otherwise large gap between descriptive and normative theory in political science.

Bibliography:

Brown Weiss, Edith, and Harold K. Jacobson. Engaging Countries: Strengthening Compliance with Nonbinding Accords. Washington, D.C.: American Society of International Law, 1998.
Donnelly, Jack. “Universal Human Rights: A Regime Analysis.” International Organization 40 (1986): 599–642.
Finnemore, Martha. National Interests in International Society. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996.
Finnemore, Martha, and Kathryn Sikkink. “International Norm Dynamics and Political Change.” International Organization 52 (1998): 887–917.
Goldstein, Judith L., Miles Kahler, Robert O. Keohane, and Anne-Marie Slaughter, eds. Legalization and World Politics. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2001.
Keck, Margaret E., and Kathryn Sikkink. Activists beyond Borders: Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1998.
Krasner, Stephen D. Sovereignty: Organized Hypocrisy. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1999.
March, James G., and Johan P. Olsen. “The Institutional Dynamics of International Political Orders.” International Organization 52 (1998): 943–969.
Risse,Thomas, Stephen C. Ropp, and Kathryn Sikkink. The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.
Rosenau, James N. Along the Domestic-Foreign Frontier: Exploring Governance in a Turbulent World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997.

This example International Norms Essay is published for educational and informational purposes only. If you need a custom essay or research paper on this topic please use our writing services. EssayEmpire.com offers reliable custom essay writing services that can help you to receive high grades and impress your professors with the quality of each essay or research paper you hand in.